Story and Truth in Edwin Blashfields The Evolution of...

In 1894, construction neared completion on The Thomas Jefferson Building, the oldest of the three buildings which comprise the Library of Congress in Washington D.C.. With the exterior well in hand, the architects turned their attention to the interior, commissioning extensive murals by well-known artists. The commissioners of these murals deliberately set out to â€Å"personify the ideals of the [American] people† through the medium of government-sponsored art, and provide a relatively young nation with a story about themselves -- a visual â€Å"literature† which would connect them to the distant past.1 Among the most famous of these murals is Edwin Blashfield’s The Evolution of Civilization which occupies the massive dome of the Main Reading Room;†¦show more content†¦In spite of what painters, archeologists, or researchers of the nineteenth century believed about the ancient world, cuneiform has since proven its historical mettle. As displayed by Dari us and his memorial at Bisitun, the early, crude cuneiform of 5000 B.C.E. adapted itself to culture after culture, and morphed into the dusty forerunner of our modern alphabet. The Phoenicians, the original ancient mariners, are responsible for transforming cuneiform into a more efficient writing system by paring down the somewhat ungainly number of 5,000 cuneiform characters into 29 characters. Adopted around 1000 B.C.E., the Phoenician alphabet was not a collection of pictographs like many early forms of writing, but instead a close relative of many modern writing systems.11 The sophisticated navy and extensive trade network of Phoenicia ensured that this new version of cuneiform would quickly spread to its ancient neighbors. Phoenicia’s alphabet would soon be adopted by the Greeks, who also refined and perfected this writing system to meet their own needs; likewise the Romans, eager inheritors of all things Greek, adopted the alphabet for their own use. It could be said th at the highly adaptive descendants of cuneiform formed the basis for the literature of the Classical world. The Phoenician cuneiform alphabet was also adopted by Jewish culture, providing a medium for Hebrew narrative and progressive sense of history, another innovation

Summary of Sartres The Transcendence of the Ego

The Transcendence of the Ego  is a philosophical essay published by  Jean Paul Sartre  in 1936. In it, he sets out his view that the self or ego is not itself something that one is aware of. The model of consciousness that Sartre  provides in this essay  may be outlined as follows. Consciousness is always intentional; that is, it is always and necessarily consciousness of something. The object of consciousness can be almost any kind of thing: a physical object, a proposition, a state of affairs, a recollected image or mood--anything that consciousness can apprehend. This is the â€Å"principle of intentionality† that forms the starting point for Husserls phenomenology.   Sartre radicalizes this principle by asserting that consciousness is nothing but intentionality. This means conceiving of consciousness as a pure activity, and denying that there is any ego which lies within, behind or beneath consciousness as its source or necessary condition. The justification of this claim is one of Sartres main purposes in The Transcendence of the Ego. Sartre first distinguishes between two modes of consciousness: unreflecting consciousness and reflecting consciousness. Unreflecting consciousness is simply my usual consciousness of things other than consciousness itself: birds, bees, a piece of music, the meaning of a sentence, a recollected face, etc. According to Sartre consciousness simultaneously posits and grasps its objects. And he describes such consciousness as positional and as thetic. What he means by these terms is not entirely clear, but he seems to be referring to the fact that in my consciousness of anything there is both activity and passivity. Consciousness of an object is positional in that it posits the object: that is, it directs itself to the object (e.g. an apple, or a tree) and attends to it. It is â€Å"thetic† in that consciousness confronts its object as something given to it, or as something that has already been posited. Sartre also claims that consciousness, even when it is unreflecting, is always minimally conscious of itself. This mode of consciousness he describes as non-positional and non-thetic indicating that in this mode, consciousness does not posit itself as an object, nor is it confronted by itself. Rather, this irreducible self-awareness is taken to be an invariable quality of both unreflecting and reflecting consciousness. A reflecting consciousness is one that is positing itself as its object. Fundamentally, says Sartre, the reflecting consciousness and the consciousness that is the object of reflection (the reflected consciousness) are identical. Nevertheless, we can distinguish between them, at least in abstraction, and so talk about two consciousnesses here: the reflecting and the reflected.  Ã‚   His main purpose in analyzing self-consciousness is to show that self-reflection does not support the thesis that there is an ego situated within or behind consciousness. He first distinguishes two kinds of reflection: (1) reflection on an earlier state of consciousness that is recalled to mind by memory–so this earlier state now becomes an object of present consciousness; and (2) reflection in the immediate present where consciousness takes itself as it is now for its object. Retrospective reflection of the first kind, he argues, reveals only an unreflecting consciousness of objects along with the non-positional self-awareness that is an invariable feature of consciousness. It does not reveal the presence of an I within consciousness.  Reflection of the second kind, which is the kind that Descartes is engaged in when he asserts â€Å"I think, therefore I am,† might be thought more likely to reveal this I. Sartre denies this, however, arguing that the I that conscious ness is commonly thought to encounter here is, in fact, the product of reflection. In the second half of the essay, he offers his explanation of how this occurs. Brief Summary Briefly, his account runs as follows. Discrete moments of reflective consciousness are unified by being interpreted as emanating from my states, actions, and characteristics, all of which extend beyond the present moment of reflection. For example, my consciousness of detesting something now and my consciousness of detesting the same thing at some other moment are united by the idea that I hate that thing--hatred being a state that persists beyond the moments of conscious detestation. Actions perform a similar function. Thus, when Descartes asserts I am now doubting his consciousness is not engaged in a pure reflection on itself as it is at the present instant. He is allowing an awareness that this present moment of doubt is part of an action that began earlier and will continue for some time to inform his reflection. The discrete moments of doubt are unified by the action, and this unity is expressed in the I which he includes in his assertion.   The ego, then, is not discovered in reflection but is created by it. It is not, however, an abstraction, or a mere idea. Rather, it is the concrete totality of my reflective states of consciousness, constituted by them in the way that a melody is constituted by discrete notes. We do, says Sartre, apprehend the ego out of the corner of our eye when we reflect; but if we try to focus on it and make it the object of consciousness it necessarily disappears, since it only comes into being through consciousness reflecting on itself (not on the ego, which is something else). The conclusion Sartre draws from his analysis of consciousness is that phenomenology has no reason to posit an ego within or behind consciousness. He claims, moreover, that his view of the ego as something that reflecting consciousness constructs, and which should, therefore, be regarded as just another object of consciousness that, like all other such objects, transcends consciousness, has marked advantages. In particular, it furnishes a refutation of solipsism (the idea that the world consists of me and the contents of my mind), helps us overcome skepticism regarding the existence of other minds, and lays down the basis for an existentialist philosophy that genuinely engages the real world of people and things.

Computers and the Internet Have Touched Almost All Aspects of Life Free Essays

Computers and the Internet have touched almost all aspects of life. It is rare to come across a business or household that does not experience routine use of a computer in some shape or form. Technology has allowed people to have higher levels of convenience and proficiency. We will write a custom essay sample on Computers and the Internet Have Touched Almost All Aspects of Life or any similar topic only for you Order Now Many people today would find it very difficult to go back to an age where computers were not in existence. In addition, society has become accustomed to on-demand answers or solutions to requests or services and the Internet is the platform which fulfills this need. These are some of the positive effects of technology on society. While there have been many positive effects of computers on society, there have also been some drawbacks too. Issues such as security and complacency have increased in addition to society’s ever growing dependence on computers. Let’s take a look at some of the positive and negative effects of computers and the Internet on society:  ¦Positive Effects There are many benefits provided by computers and the Internet. The efficiency, productivity and conveniences provided by technology are unlike any experienced in history.Additionally the wealth of information to be found on the Internet is beyond measure. Individuals literally have a global resource to access and find exactly what it is they are looking for. Before computers and the Internet, people used to have to physically travel to locations to bank, shop, file applications or take care of government requirements such as renewal of a driver’s license or car registration. Today people no longer have to travel to engage in these activities, all they have to do is simply log online and take care of business from the comforts of home; a huge convenience and time saver.Additionally in many cases, wait times have been significantly decreased. Many people today go to work or school from home because the Internet creates virtual space where travel is not always necessary. Businesses and colleges are rapidly adapting to the concept of telecommuting because it increases possibilities and also cuts resources in many ways. Additionally, this is a convenience for employees and students who have difficulties working or attending school outside the home. is compiled and transferred and it is quick. In addition, the response time is almost as rapid in many kinds of transactions.Software adds levels of both productivity and efficiency in both home and office environments. Many tasks, such as checkbook balancing, budgeting, and account management are completed quickly with a high degree of accuracy. The ability to access a vast amount of information is another positive effect. No longer do people have to travel to the library card catalogue or spend hours searching through microfiche files in order to find information they need. With a simple click of the mouse, a web search more often than not brings up results that contain the information you’re looking for.Other positive effects are the ability for people to connect and converse or share information with each other. Global communities have crept up in many corners of the Internet and people who never would have met otherwise have connected through the powers and magic of the Internet. The incredible diversity you come into contact with is a wonderful opportunity and experience.  ¦Negative Effects Unfortunately despite all the positives associated with computers and the Internet, there are some drawbacks too.These are issues society has to contend with in order to achieve the benefits and often trade-offs have to be made. Security is one of the most prominent negative effects which emerges with the use of technology. The criminal element in society has found many ways to exploit and harm others by using computers and the Internet as a weapon instead of the tool it was designed to be. Crimes such as identity theft, hacking, embezzlement, and other kinds of monetary theft have increased the risks of doing business online, and these have to be mitigated through using software and being vigilant. These concerns should not deter people from using the Internet, but it is a real concern which must be dealt with. Complacency is another negative effect. While computers and the Internet have enhanced quality of life, sometimes the question begs asking of whether or not society has become too dependent on computers instead of thinking for one’s self. Many people operate on the assumption the computer is always right, and this can be a dangerous notion. While computers themselves don’t make mistakes, the human design behind the software can and do make mistakes, nothing is 100% infallible.Programmers, while in most cases are pretty accurate, do have typos or software Tasks today can be completed at lightening speed due to the amazing ability of computer processing. Transactions that used to need to be handled by hand, in often tedious fashion, can now be done electronically and rapidly. Computer technologies streamline the way information can contain glitches. Since technology is essentially tied to everything from banking, parking meters, health insurance, and medical care, it is important to be vigilant and if something seems off to always question it.This complacency leads to dependence. Are computers doing too much â€Å"thinking† for people? Today many people have no idea of how to manually do transactions or activities that computers routinely take care of these days. If computers or the Internet were to suddenly be permanently severed, this would cause a lot of problems because many people would not know how to take care of certain necessities due to this dependency. Old and â€Å"old fashioned† methods do still hold validity and it is always of value to understand how things work underneath the computer surface.For instance if an ATM or credit card machines such down, it’s good to know how to write out a check or make a physical withdra wal through filling out bank slips. Computers and the Internet have offered many positive and negative effects for society. There is without a doubt several pros and cons of our reliance on technology, but one thing is clear, neither computers or the Internet are going anywhere anytime soon, so it is best to embrace these changes, but also to be aware of the drawbacks and make adjustments in order to effectively deal with the trade-offs. 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